TIRTHANKARA
MAHAVIRA IN LITERARY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS
Dr. BRIJESH RAWAT
Associate Professor, Department of
History and Archaeology,
Dr. Shakuntala Mishra National Rehabilitation
University, Lucknow.
ABSTRACT
This paper examines Jainism through a combined analysis of literary
traditions and archaeological evidence, with a focused study on the figure of
Mahavira. It outlines the conceptual foundations of Jainism through terms such
as Jina and Tirthankara, and surveys primary and secondary textual sources from
both Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions alongside references in
Brahmanical literature. The study then evaluates archaeological materials,
including sculptures, stupas, inscriptions, and excavation findings from sites
such as Mathura and Kankalitila, to trace the historical development of Jain
religious practices and imagery. Particular attention is given to the tradition
of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, with detailed discussion of Parshvanatha and
Mahavira. The paper further analyses the evolution of Jain iconography,
especially the formal and symbolic features of Tirthankara images across
periods. Through selected sculptural case studies of Mahavira, the study
demonstrates how material remains complement textual accounts in reconstructing
the historical and visual dimensions of Jainism.
Keywords: Jain
iconography; Archaeology; Literature; Mathura art; Kankalitila
INTRODUCTION
Jainism is
reckoned among one of the oldest religions of India. The origin of the word Jaina has taken place from the Sanskrit
word Jina that means the conqueror.
The meaning of Jaina word is - of jina
i.e. view of jina, saying of Jina or spiritual advice of the jina. It means that the religion that
was instructed by the Jina is called Jainism. The other suitable synonyms for the word Jina are- ‘jinendra, jineshwara, jinadeva, arhat, arhant, arihant, arhant etc.
The word Tirthankara has been derived from the two words i.e. tri base and thak (suffix).
It means that,
after the attainment of Kevalya, and by establishing Tirtha or Sangha by the collective effort of sadhus - sadhavis and shravakas-
shravikas they are also called as tirthankaras. Jainism has been
revered in the form of self-philosophy ever since the trend of self-conquest
begins to be clearly mentioned in the literature of Jainism. Probably during
this period people started treating this religion as Jainism and its awardees
as jina. The said names have been used in the texts like Yogavashishistha,
Srimadbhagavata, Vishnupuran, Padmapuran, Matsyapurana, Shaktayan grammar
etc.
LITERARY AND
ARCHAEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS
As regards the
Jainism both kinds of sources are available be it literary or archaeological-
Under these both the original and secondary sources are available e.g. Agamas,
Kalpasutra, Angavijja, Paumchariya, Vasudevhindi, Avashyakachurna etc.
Literary sources of shwetambara
tradition- Acharadinkar,
Pravachansarodhhar, Nirvankalika, Chaturvinshatika, Vividhatirthakalpa,
Literary sources of dighambara
Tradition- Harivanshapurana, Adipurana, Pratishthasarasangraha,
Pratishthasaroddhar and Partishthatilakam forms the main sources.
The original sources other than Jain literary sources are- Rigveda,
Yajurved, Mahabharat, Ashtadhyayi, Skandhapuran, Vishnupuran, Lankavatar
etc. Among secondary texts- the Jaina Iconography, B.C. Bhattacharya, Jaina
Iconography, H.D. Sankaliya, Notes on Jaina Art, A.K. Coomaraswamy, Jains
Remains at Rajgiri, Reports of Kankalitila, A. Cunningham, Study
of Jaina Art, U.P. Shah etc.
Archaeological Sources comes the study of the two kinds of antiquity-Jaina
Antiquities conserved in the museums and Jaina resources at archaeological
sites.
Some scholars establish relations between the
saints mentioned in Rigveda and Jaina shramanas. Vedic literature
mentions the name of Tirthankaras. Rigveda mentions Rishabha and Yajurveda
mentions Ajita.
Many other
evidences that validate Jainism in ancient literature which will probably be of
use for the people who believes in Jainism are-shishnadeva, nagnahu,
urdhavareta, urdhavmanthi, keshin, vatarshana, nirgrantha, shramana, shaman,
saman, yati, vratya, tyajya, Naginin etc. Among Archaeological evidences
Sculputers, Stupa and Inscriptions are the main sources. Some sculptures from
Indus Civilizations have been obtained that are very similar to the sculptures
of Tirthankaras (Rawat 2016: 21-52). Hence some scholars perceive parts of
Jainism in Indus Civilization. Two sculptures have been obtained from
Lohanipur, Patna from the same place belonging to the two different historical
periods (Maurya and Sunga) with which some Mauryan silver coins and bricks have
been found which are the approval of the fact that these sculptures belong to
the said period (Rawat 2016: 61-62).
Sculpture of Parshava has been displayed at the Chhatrapati Shivaji
Museum, Mumbai. Following this, many sculptures of Tirthankaras were
constructed in Mathura Art during the period of Kushanas. The sculptures made in
the Mathura art were mainly of Rishabh, Nemi, Parshava and Mahavira. From the excavation at the Kankalitila mound
of Mathura, the Jaina sculptures from Sunga period upto1032 CE have been
obtained which enriches history and archaeology (Smith 1969). Some scholars on
this basis believe that oldest religious images constructed were, was that of
Jainism.
While taking the
name of Stupa, attention goes to the Buddhist stupas but it is not so. Jaina
Stupas were also constructed. Many ayagapattas have been obtained during
the excavations from Kankalitila, Mathura over which were depicted three kinds
of stupa (Ghosh 1975: 55-60). Kankalitila itself is
a place of Jainism (Ghosh 1975: 55-60). Hence, the Jaina Stupa has come to
light not only from northern India but from Eastern and Southern India too
(Rawat 2016: 93-114). A grand stupa has come to light from the Udaigiri
excavation in Orissa (Rawat 2016: 107-108),
similarly from Vaddamanu, Guntoor, excavations in Andhra Pradesh (Birla
Archeological and Cultural Research Institute, Hyderabad 1981-85 CE) too (Rawat
2016: 108-111), the Jaina Stupas have been obtained which belongs to the latter
Mauryan period. In this excavation not only the antiquities but the
inscriptions too have been obtained.
Similarly, from
the archaeological evidences, the Hathigumpha Inscription from Udaigiri
belonging to first century BCE is of great significance (Ghosh 1975: 81-86). It
mentions that Kharvela brought back that Jina sculpture from Magadha, which was
taken by the Magadhan King tivasat year ago. Most of the scholars
consider tivasat as three hundred
years. If we add 300 years to first century BCE then it will be 400 BCE. At
that time Magadha was ruled by powerful Magadhan ruler Mahapadmananda. Hence
the sculpture that has been mentioned in Kharvella Inscription would have
belonged to 400 BCE. In this way, by studying the intensive study of the
archaeological remains, many more information can be gathered (Rawat 2016:
57-59).
With the subtle
study of literary and archaeological material, it is known that in Jainism
there were twenty-four Tirthankaras- Rishabha, Ajita, Sambhava, Abhinandana,
Sumita, Padmaprabha, Suparshva, Chandraprabha, Suvidhi, Sheetala, Shreyansh,
Vasupujya, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma, Shanti, Kunthu, Ar, Malli, Munisuvrata,
Nami, Nemi, Parshava and Mahavira (Kalpasutra 230). In the tenth century with
the coming in existence of Nath community, the word nath was added at the end of the name of Tirthankara (Rawat 2010:
56).
First Tirthankara
Rishabha or Adinatha is named as the propagator of Jainism. It is believed that
the brahmi script had its origin from his daughter Brahmi and our country’s name Bharata
originated from his son’s name ‘Bharata’. Rishabha is regarded as the father of
asi (syahi i.e. ink), masi (i.e. metal) and kushi (krishi i.e. agriculture) (Rawat 2016: 9).
There is a
difference of opinion regarding the Nineteenth Tirthankara Malli that whether
Malli was a man or a woman. Digambara tradition regards Malli as male,
because digambara tradition does not consider woman worthy of attaining kevalya
or salvation. But shwetambara Tradition considers woman to be equally
worthy of attaining kevalya so they regard Malli as woman. A beautiful
female sculpture of Malli has been obtained from Unnao, U.P. which is at present displayed
and is enhancing the beauty of State Museum, Lucknow (Rawat 2010: 187).
The twenty second
Tirthankara is Nemi, Rathnemi or Arishtanemi, who is the cousin of Sri Krishna.
He is mentioned and is described and depicted in art and literature as Sri
Krishna’s Cousin (Rawat 2010: 51-62).
Twenty third
Tirthankara is Parshva. Who is specially mention in Vyakhya Pragyapti
(20.63). He got his salvation about 250 years prior to Mahavira i.e. 521 BCE at
the age hundred at sammedashikhara
(Parasnaath Mountain, Hazaribagh, Bihar). According to Achrangsutra (1,7,8,10)
The parents of Mahavira were the followers of Parshava. According to Kalpasutra
(191) Mahavira followed the same paths which were observed by his previous
Tirthankaras. From the dialogue of the follower Gautam the historicity of
Parshava is ascertained (Uttaraddhyayansutra 44, 47). The birth place of
Parshava was Varanasi and he obtained his kevalya
or salvation at Ahichhatra. He visited the places like Vaishali,
Hastinapur, Kampilya, Kaushambhi, Rajgir and Sahet -Mahet (Jain 2005: 77).
There is no
information regarding the long period of 250 years i.e. between the attainment
of the kevalya of Parshava and the
birth of Mahavira. From Sutrakritang (1,11,11) we come to know that during this
period there was the rise of about 363 doctrines. It is not clear that after
Parshava there was any such notable personality who could come in front and who
could reorganize Jainism, and propagate it. But it was Mahavira who brought
changes in the circumstances and with his character, farsightedness and on the
basis of his activity, again reorganized and propagated Jainism. Mahavira was born in 527 BCE at Kundagram a
suburb of Vaishali I the house of a Gyatrik
Kshatriya Siddhartha and Trishala. Siddhartha had two sons Nandivardhana
and Vardhmana. His wife was Yashodhara and had a daughter named Priyadarshini
and son in law Jamali. When Vardhamana reached the age of thirty his father
Siddhartha died. Since Vardhamana was reflective from the beginning, so a year
after his father’s death (Kalpasutra 122) he left his home and after taking due
permission taken from his elder brother Nandivardhana became a Jain Bhikshu after a severe penance of twelve years, he attained kevalya under a shaal tree at the bank of Ujjuvalia
(Rijupalika) river (form of Shyamlak Grihapati) near Jambhiyagam (Jumbhika) at the age of forty three.
Tirthankara
Mahavira spent rest of his thirty years in the propagation of his religion. He
visited many places- Alambhika, Champa, Kaushambi, Pawa, Mithila, Nalanda,
Rajgriha, Shravasti, Siddharthpur, Varanasi, Vaishali etc. for the promotion of
his religion. Not only this he also added fifth vow to Jainism i.e.
Brahmacharya. Since Mahavira till date Jainism
is flourishing without any hassles. The soul of Jainism physically resides in
the images. Along with the image construction of Mahavira, the images of other
twenty-three Tirthankaras are also being
constructed at wider scale. But till fifth and sixth century only the
sculptures of only Rishabha, Nemi, Parshva and Mahavira were constructed. In the sixth and seventh century, for the
first time in a text named Samvayangsutra (321.43), the symbols of
twenty-four Tirthankaras were determined. Hence around seventh century CE, the
image of other Tirthankaras (Acharangsutra 4,8,12,11), besides the four
mentioned above also began to be constructed.
The Icons of
Tirthankaras were constructed either in kayotsarga
standing posture or in meditative posture.
Along with it the lanchhan
(symbols), image of yaksha- yakshini,
chakra, singh, padasana, padasanavastra, shravak- shravaika, bhakta, chhatra,
jalabhisheka etc. are added too.
The colour of
Mahavira is golden, symbol is lion, yaksha is Matanga, yakshi is
Siddhayika. The oldest idols of Mahavira are from Mathura and belong to the
Kushana period. They are constructed in meditative and standing posture along
with the symbol lion and chakra. The
sculptures belonging to this period adorns the Government Museum, Mathura, and
the State Museum, Lucknow. Till fourth century the sculptures were constructed
without these symbols. During Gupta
period a new kind of Mahavira image comes into view which is called as Jivantswami
sculpture. Actually, after the death of his father, Mahavira stayed in palace
for a year. Since then, he started living in a worried posture with clothes and
ornaments. The artist gave the sculpture, the same form with clothes in kayotsarga posture in stone which was
obtained from Akota in Gujarat. Medieval period too witnessed the construction
of similar types of images.
The sculptures
between the period from eighth to twelfth century CE have been obtained from
Mathura, Bharatpur, Gyaraspur, Kumbhariya, Deogarh, Khajuraho, Sonbhandar,
Badami, Aihole, Halebid, Hyderabad, Chennai etc. The life scenes of Mahavira were depicted
began since the time of Kushanas period which is preserved in the State Museum,
Lucknow. In this there is the depiction of pregnancy change at the time of
Mahavira's birth. The features of three special sculptures here are as follows
–
Mahavira in
meditation- This sculpture of the twenty-fourth Tirthankara Mahavira Swami was
obtained from Varanasi and is on display at Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi. It is
made of sandstone of ochre colour. Jina is seated in meditation posture. Hair
is braided, arched eyebrows, half-closed eyes and gentle, calm face, lips are
thick but attractive, long ears, rings are clearly visible on the neck. Simple
aura, sky-traveling deity and chavnardhar in tribhanga posture
are depicted. The cloth of the Tirthankara's seat is decorated and hangs much
lower than usual. There are two lions on both sides of the footrest. Dharmachakra
is depicted in the middle of them. Two standing figures are engraved on the
sides of both the lions. Due to which other artistic features are not visible.
This is the first sculpture with a stigma. On the basis of artistic
characteristics, it has a prominent place in the field of art and its
construction period is 6th century CE and its measurement is
136×65×16 cm. It’s Acc. No. is 161(fig.1).
Headless seating
Mahavira-This statue is of the twenty-fourth Tirthankara Mahavira. It is made
of ochre sandstone, which was obtained from Mahavan, Mathura and is currently
on display in the State Jain Museum, Mathura. The Tirthankara is present in a
meditative posture, without a head, on an ornate seat. On closer inspection,
the remnants of a halo can be seen. The auspicious symbol shrivatsa is
missing in the middle of the broad chest, but the navel is visible. In the
entourage, two chavardharas are standing in a ruined state, wearing
clothes and ornaments. The base of the feet is very ornate, on which a cloth
hangs. It is clear. The front part of the pedestal of this statue has been
rubbed due to which it is difficult to identify the marks and other figures.
But on closer inspection, three kirti mukhas, a crouching lion in the
cloth, shravaka-shravika on the sides and the mark of lion are clearly
visible. The name and period of this statue has not been determined in the
museum. But the author has identified it. According to which, on the basis of
artistic features, the construction period is approximately 11th
century CE and the measurement is 59×40×27 cm. It’s Acc. No. is 12-259 (fig.2).
Mahavira in
meditation- This statue is also of the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira, which was
found from Bateshwar and is preserved in the newly built Jain temple. The head
of this statue made of sandstone of dull colour is carved. An artistic shrivatsa
and navel are carved in the middle of the chest. The right thigh of the Jina
seated in meditation posture is broken. A lion is carved on the seat. In place
of lions inside the chariot below the seat, there is a mark of some other
animal which is adorned with ornaments, but it is not clear due to being
broken. In this statue, in place of dharma chakra, a 'mouse' is carved
which is standing and on its sides two female disciples adorned with clothes
and ornaments are raising their right hands and touching the mouse with their left
hands. Probably the female disciples are preventing the mouse from going near
the lion. It has an inscription. On the
basis of art style, it was made around 11th-12th century CE and its measurement
is 31×26×12 cm. (fig.3).
SUMMARY
Thus, after a
comprehensive study of literary and archaeological remains, it is known that
the description of Mahavira is not only accumulated in the literature, but
abundant materials related to them can be obtained from the antiquities as
well. This covers the whole account of
Mahavira from the normal life up to the various works done by Mahavira as
Tirthankara.
REFERENCES
Ghosh, A., 1975, Jain Kala evam Sthapatya, New
Delhi: Gyan Peeth Prakashan.
Jain, Kailash Chand, 2005, Jain Dharm ka Itihas,
Part 1, New Delhi: D.K. Printers (P) Limited.
Rawat, Brijesh, 2010, Jain Pratima Kala, Delhi:
Swati Prakashan.
Rawat, Brijesh, 2017, Jain Murtiyon ka Udbhav aur
Vikas, Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation.
Smith, V. A., 1969, The
Jaina Stupa and Antiquities of Mathura, Varanasi: Indological Book House.
PLATES
Fig.
1: Seating Mahavira, Varanasi, 6th
c. CE
Fig.
2:
Seating Mahavira, Mahavan, 11th c. CE
Fig. 3a and 3b: Seating Mahavira,
Bateshvar, 11th c. CE