THE FORM OF VIŚĀPAHARAṆA
SCULPTURES IN INDIAN ART
Prof. DEVENDRA KUMAR GUPTA
*, Dr. DIVYANSHU BISHT **
* Professor,
** Assistant
Professor,
Department
of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, Gurukula Kangri, Haridwar
ABSTRACT
This form of Śiva in Indian art is associated with
the act of drinking poison that emerged after the churning of the ocean. For
this reason, T. A. Gopinatha Rao was the first to use the term
‘Viśāpaharaṇa’ for this image. This form of Śiva is also
known by names such as Nīlakaṇṭha, Śrīkaṇṭha,
and Viṣakaṇṭha. Evidence of this image in Indian art begins
to appear around the 9th century CE, although the number of
discovered sculptures is very limited. However, these images have been found in
different parts of the country. References to this legend are found in Sanskrit
literature from early times, yet North Indian iconographic texts do not provide
descriptions related to this image. The South Indian iconographic texts, on the
other hand, contain detailed accounts of the method of creating the
Viśāpaharaṇa image. Based on these texts, it is observed that
there is no uniformity in the early sculptural methods of Viśāpaharaṇa
depictions. This research paper presents a new dimension to the understanding
of the form of Viśāpaharaṇa images in Indian art, drawing upon
iconographic texts as its foundation.
KEY WORDS: Nīlakaṇṭha,
Viśāpaharaṇa mūrti, Śiva, Śrīkaṇṭha,
Viṣakaṇṭha, Nīlagrīva, Śitikaṇṭha,
Viṣapāna.
VIŚĀPAHARAṆA FORM IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE
The earliest mention of this form of Śiva is found
in Vedic literature. In the tenth maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda (Pillai,
1958: 37), there is a reference to Rudra drinking poison along with
Keśī. According to Sivaramamurti (1976: 8-9), in the Śatarudriya
Sūkta of the Vājasaneyī Saṁhitā, Rudra is
described with the epithets Śitikaṇṭha (white-throated) and
Nīlagrīva (blue-necked). Over time, these terms became the basis for
the development of this mythological narrative.
According to the Rāmāyaṇa (2007: 1/45/15-26), during the first age (Krita Yuga), the
Daityas, sons of Diti, and the Devas, sons of Aditi, were powerful beings.
Desiring to obtain amrita (nectar of immortality) to become immortal and free
from disease, they decided to churn the ocean. For this purpose, they used
Mount Mandarācala as the churning rod and Vāsuki, the serpent, as the
churning rope. As the churning began, the first thing to emerge was a deadly
poison named Halāhala, blazing like fire. The poison began to burn gods,
demons, and all beings of the world. Terrified, the gods prayed to Lord
Śiva for protection. Hearing their prayers, Śiva appeared and, at the
request of the gods and Viṣṇu, drank the poison, treating it as
nectar, and held it in his throat.
The Mahābhārata (1987: 1/18/13-43) also
contains an extensive description of this legend. It narrates that in ancient
times; the gods and demons churned the ocean using Mount Mandarācala as
the rod and Vāsuki as the rope. The demons held Vāsuki’s head while
the gods held his tail. As the churning continued, various precious objects
emerged one by one. Among them appeared the terrible poison Kālakūṭa,
blazing with fumes like fire and threatening to destroy the whole world. The
beings of the three worlds fainted from its fumes. At the prayer of
Brahmā, Śiva took the poison into his throat to save the universe,
which turned his neck blue, earning him the name Nīlakaṇṭha.
After Śiva consumed the poison, the churning
resumed. Then appeared the divine cow Kāmadhenu, taken by the sages; the
horse Uchhaiśravā, taken by the demon king Bali; the elephant
Airāvata, taken by Indra; the jewel Kaustubha, taken by Viṣṇu;
followed by the Kalpavṛkśa tree and the celestial nymph Rambhā,
both retained in heaven. Then emerged Mahālakṣmī, who chose Viṣṇu
as her consort, and later Vāruṇī, who was taken by the demons.
Subsequently, the moon, the Pārijāta tree, the conch shell, and
finally Dhanvantari, the divine physician, emerged carrying the pot of nectar.
The demons snatched the pot and began to fight among themselves. The gods,
weakened by a curse from the sage Durvāsā, could not fight them. Then
Viṣṇu assumed the enchanting form of Mohinī, approached the
demons, and with her charm, persuaded them to let her distribute the nectar.
Enchanted, they agreed. While distributing, Mohinī gave nectar only to the
gods. One demon named Svarbhānu, disguised as a god, sat among them and
drank some nectar. The sun and the moon pointed him out, and Viṣṇu
immediately cut off his head with the Sudarśanacakra. Due to the nectar’s
power, his head and body became the celestial beings Rāhu and Ketu, who
cause eclipses. After giving nectar to the gods, Viṣṇu disappeared,
and when the demons realised the deception, a fierce battle between the gods
and the demons ensued, in which Indra defeated Bali and regained his realm.
Thus, in this context, it is notable that while the Rāmāyaṇa
refers to the poison as Halāhala, the Mahābhārata calls
it Kālakūṭa.
According to the Vāyu Purāṇa
(2013: 1/54/46-95) and the Brahmānḍa Purāṇa (2016:
1/2/25/45-88), when the gods and demons churned the ocean, the first thing to
emerge was a blazing poison like Kālāgni (the fire of destruction).
Terrified, the gods and demons went to Brahmā, saying, ‘A dreadful poison,
shining like dark clouds and blazing like the fire of dissolution, has
appeared. From its heat, Viṣṇu’s fair complexion has turned dark.’
Brahmā, unable to bear its power, advised them to seek Śiva’s help,
for only he could neutralise it. The gods, led by Brahmā, prayed to
Śiva, who, pleased with their devotion, asked the cause of their distress.
Brahmā explained that the poison from the ocean threatened to burn the
three worlds like the sun at the end of time. Hearing this, and with
Pārvatī’s consent, Śiva drank the poison for the welfare of all
beings, and his throat turned blue, giving rise to the name Nīlakaṇṭha.
The Śrīmadbhāgavata Purāṇa
(2017: 8/7/8-43) also recounts this story. When the gods and demons churned the
ocean using Mount Mandarācala as the rod and Vāsuki as the rope, the
first thing to emerge was the Halāhala poison. Seeing its terrible power,
all the gods and demons were terrified and prayed to Śiva. Pleased by
their prayers, Śiva, with Pārvatī’s consent, held the poison in
his palm and drank it. His throat turned blue, and he became known as
Nīlakaṇṭha.
According to the Matsya Purāṇa (2017:
250), when the gods and demons churned the ocean, first the moon emerged,
followed by Lakśmī, Surā Devi, the divine horse, Kaustubha gem,
and Pārijāta tree. Then appeared a dense blue smoke, spreading in all
directions, unbearable to all beings, followed by a blazing fire with fierce
flames. Its heat burned both gods and demons. Soon after, from this fire
emerged serpents of various types, insects, bees, flies, and other poisonous
creatures. Terrified, the gods and demons again sought refuge in Śiva,
explaining that during the churning, a dreadful poison had appeared that was
destroying all beings. To save the world, Śiva drank the poison, which
made his throat radiant and blue.
Thus, across Vedic, epic, and Purāṇica
literature, Śiva’s Viśāpaharaṇa (Poison-Drinking) form is
celebrated as an act of supreme compassion and cosmic preservation, earning him
eternal reverence as Nīlakaṇṭha (the blue-throated lord).
VIŚĀPAHARAṆA FORM IN ICONOGRAPHIC TEXTS
According to the Karaṇāgama, in this
form, Śiva should be depicted as four-armed, adorned with a matted crown
and having three eyes. In two of his hands, he should hold a battle-axe and a
deer; of the remaining two, one should hold a vessel containing poison while
the other should display the gesture of granting boons (varada mudrā).
Śiva’s gaze should be directed toward the vessel of poison, and his
expression should suggest that he is about to drink it. In this form, the deity
should be adorned with the matted crown and all usual ornaments. To his left,
Pārvatī should be depicted standing in a tribhaṅga posture,
appearing distressed. Her right foot should rest on the ground, and her left
leg should be slightly bent. The two-armed Pārvatī should be shown
embracing Śiva with her right arm and pressing his neck gently, expressing
anxiety and sorrow. The deeper meaning behind this depiction is that when
Śiva consumed the poison for the welfare of the world, Pārvatī,
fearing its disastrous effect, stopped it in his throat, which caused his neck
to turn blue, giving him the name Nīlakaṇṭha. Another
description suggests that in this form, Śiva should appear fierce, with
slightly protruding teeth, and his face should shine like the full moon. He
should be adorned with a tiger skin, a garland of bells, and all usual
ornaments. The four-armed Śiva should hold a trident in one of his right
hands and a vessel of poison in the other, while in one of his left hands, he
should hold a skull. However, the text does not specify what is held in the
other left hand. Śiva should be depicted seated on the bull along with
Pārvatī. (Rao: 1916: 356-58)
According to the Śrītattvanidhi (2004:
3/276-79), the three-eyed Śiva should be shown adorned with a matted crown.
In this image, the four-armed deity should hold a deer and an axe in his upper
hands. In his lower hands, the right hand should hold the vessel of poison in
such a way that he appears ready to drink it, while the left hand should be in
the gesture of blessing (varada mudrā), reassuring the gods that there is
no reason to fear and that he is drinking the poison for the welfare of all
beings. Śiva should be shown adorned with all ornaments. To his left,
Pārvatī should be depicted standing in tribhaṅga posture, with
her right leg straight on the ground and her left leg slightly bent. She,
appearing anxious due to the poison, should be shown pressing Śiva’s neck
with one hand.
According to the Śāradātilaka (2016:
19/48), in this form, Śiva should be depicted shining with the radiance of
a thousand suns, adorned with a crescent moon on his matted hair, having five
faces and three eyes, decorated with serpent ornaments, wearing a tiger skin,
and seated in a lalitāsana poture. The four-armed Śiva should hold a rosary,
trident, skull, and khaṭvāṅga in his hands.
THE FORM OF VIŚĀPAHARAṆA SCULPTURES IN
INDIAN ART
An inscription found at the Nārāyaṇapuram
temple, one of the main art centers of the Eastern Gaṅga kings, refers to
this deity as Nīleśvara and the temple itself as Nīlakaṇṭheśvara.
A temple bearing the same name, Nīlakaṇṭheśvara, also
exists in Gallavalli. Similarly, there was once a temple named Nīlakaṇṭheśvara
located on Tarī Hill in Visakhapatnam. Another temple by the same name is
found in Rishikesh, in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. Unfortunately, not a
single image of Śiva in this particular form has been discovered from any
of these locations.
A beautiful bronze image of this form, dated to the ninth
century CE (Fig. 1), was discovered at a place called Kilāppudnur in the
Nannīlam taluk of Tirūvarūr District, Tamil Nadu. This sculpture
is currently preserved in the Government Museum, Chennai (Acc. No. 226). In
this image, the deity is shown seated in lalitāsana on a bhadrapīṭha.
The four-armed deity holds a paraśu in the upper right hand and a black
deer in the upper left hand. Of the front two hands, the left hand holds a
snake with its hood raised, while the right hand holds a vessel containing
poison. The three-eyed deity is adorned with a matted crown decorated with a
crescent moon and a serpent, a forehead band, serpent-shaped earrings in both
ears, necklaces, a serpent sacred thread, waist belt, armlets, bracelets,
girdle, waist cloth, and anklets. The expression on the deity’s face reflects profound
serenity, symbolizing his willingness to drink the poison for the welfare of
the entire world. However, it is noteworthy that, unlike the description given
in the Āgama texts, this sculpture does not depict Pārvatī
alongside Śiva.
Stella Kramrisch (1981: 110) has mentioned a bronze image
from the tenth century CE, created during the reign of the Eastern Cālukya
kings (Fig. 2), which is presently preserved in the Nelson-Atkins Museum,
Kansas City, Missouri. In this sculpture, the four-armed deity stands in
samabhaṅga mudrā upon a viśvapadma pedestal. The upper two
hands, similar to the previously mentioned image, hold a paraśu in the
right and a deer in the left. Among the two principal hands, the right hand
holds a vessel containing poison along with a rosary, while the left hand, in
katyāvalambita mudrā, grasps a serpent, which alludes to the deadly
poison in his right hand. Thus, both sculptures conform to the description
given in the Karaṇāgama, according to which the deity should
hold an axe and a deer in two hands and a vessel filled with poison in another.
However, it is notable that this sculpture represents the deity standing, as
described in the Karaṇāgama. The three-eyed god is adorned
with a matted crown decorated with serpents, makara-kuṇḍalas, a
garland, necklace, sacred thread, waist belt, serpent armlets, bangles, girdle,
mekhalā, anklets, and lower garments. The standing posture and the
slightly downcast eyes of the deity clearly indicate his readiness to consume
poison. In this image, the deity is also portrayed as a youthful figure.
Fig. 2. The
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City (Missouri) Fig. 1. Government
Museum, Chennai (Tamilnadu)
N. K. Bhattasali (1929: 116-17, pl. 46) has mentioned
another image of this form discovered at Kashipur, located a few miles west of
Barisal, which is currently worshipped. Based on the description in the Śāradātilaka,
he identified it as the image of Śiva in his Nilakantha form. Although the
image does not possess five faces, the weapons held by the deity correspond to
those described in the Śāradātilaka. The four-armed god
holds a trident and a khaṭvāṅga in the upper hands, while the
lower hands hold a vessel of poison and a rosary. The image is exceptionally
beautiful, and the deity’s face bears a gentle smile. The deity is depicted
with a parasol above his head. Below, Gaṇeśa and Kārttikeya are
shown, while on either side of the deity, Gaṅga riding a makara is
depicted on the right and Gaurī riding a lion on the left. Both two-armed
goddesses display the right hand in abhaya mudrā and hold a lotus in the
left. On the pedestal below, Śiva’s mount Naṅdī is depicted
gazing upward at his master’s divine act. As in other sculptures from Bengal,
Śiva is represented here in the ūrdhvaliṅga (erect phallus)
form.
A beautiful image of this form (Fig. 3) is preserved in
the Archaeological Museum at Jageshwar in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand. In
this sculpture, the deity is seated in lalitāsana on a lotus pedestal. The
left leg rests upon the base, while the right leg hangs downward, touching the
lotus below. The four-armed deity holds a lotus in the upper right hand, shown
attracting a serpent emerging from Śiva’s matted locks with its fragrance,
while the upper left hand holds a trident. Among the lower hands, the right is
in varada mudrā, and the left holds a vessel of poison. It appears that
this image too was created according to the description in the Karaṇāgama,
which prescribes that one of the deity’s hands should be in varada mudrā
and another should hold a vessel of poison. The deity is adorned with a matted
crown, forehead band, jewelled and leaf-shaped earrings, necklaces,
pearl-sacred thread, armlets, bangles, waist band, garland, and anklets. Below
the pedestal, on either side, two doorkeepers and two other standing figures
are shown, though their identities are uncertain due to damage. To the right of
the deity, a male serpent figure is depicted, while in the centre, beside
Śiva’s mount Naṅdī, another serpent figure is shown seated with
folded hands, indicating Śiva’s act of drinking poison. On the left,
besides Gaṇeśa, another male figure is depicted sitting on the
pedestal, but due to damage to the face, his identity is uncertain. In the
centre of the prabhāvalī, Brahmā with three faces is shown
seated in lalitāsana on a lotus pedestal to the right, while to the left,
Viṣṇu with four arms is seated on his vehicle, Garuda. At the top
of the prabhāvalī, celestial beings adorned with garlands are shown
among clouds, Fig. 3. Archaeological
Museum, Jageshvar (Almora) Fig. 4. Śrīkaṇṭheśvara
Temple, Nanjangud (Mysore)
An image of this form (Fig. 4) was found in the
Śrīkaṇṭheśvara Temple at Nanjangud in Mysore. In
this sculpture, the deity is shown standing on a high pedestal in sambhaṅga-sampāda
posture. The four-armed deity holds an axe in the upper right hand and a deer
in the upper left, while among the lower hands, the right holds a vessel of
poison and the left is in varada mudrā. The deity is adorned with a matted
crown, earrings, necklace, garland, waist belt, bangles, armlets, girdle,
garland, anklets, and a dhoti. Additionally, a small bell is tied below the
right knee. To the left of Śiva, the two-armed Pārvatī is shown
standing and facing him. Her right hand is indistinct, while her left hand is
depicted pressing Śiva’s neck. This scene corresponds to the description
in the Karaṇāgama and Śrītattvanidhi,
according to which one of Pārvatī’s hands should be shown pressing
Śiva’s neck. Like Śiva, Pārvatī too is adorned with a
conical crown, conch-shaped earrings, a shoulder garland, bangles, armlets, a
girdle, a waist ornament, a necklace, anklets, and a sārī. Behind
Śiva and Pārvatī, an ornamented archway is also depicted.
EVALUATION OF VIŚĀPAHARAṆA IMAGES
The first bronze image belongs to the Cola period. The
distinguishing feature of this image is the vessel of poison in the right hand
and the serpent in the left. In this sculpture, Śiva is seated on a
pedestal, while the iconographic texts prescribe a standing posture. The second
image represents Eastern Cālukyan art. It too depicts a solitary image of
Śiva holding a vessel of poison in his right hand. In both these sculptures,
the absence of Pārvatī is notable, which is inconsistent with the
iconographic texts. Due to the presence of the poison vessel, both images are
categorised as Viśāpaharaṇa forms. The next image, found in
Bengal, probably belongs to the Sena period. N. K. Bhattasali used the term
‘Nīlakaṇṭha’ for this sculpture and stated that it was
influenced by the Śāradātilaka. The description of the
weapons in this image aligns with that text. The presence of the poison vessel
is again the reason for its identification as Nīlakaṇṭha.
The fourth image belongs to the Pratīhāra
period and was found in the Kumaon Himalayas. Several sculptures related to
Pratīhāra art from the 9th-10th century CE have
been discovered in this region. In this image, the vessel of poison is held in
the left hand, unlike all the other images, where it is held in the right. This
sculpture possibly depicts the serpent king Vāsuki standing before
Śiva in a gesture of reverence (añjalibaddha mudrā). The depiction of
Vāsuki in a human form is a significant feature of this sculpture.
The final image belongs to the 17th-18th
century CE. It is kept inside the Naṅjuṅdeśvara Temple
(Śrīkaṇṭheśvara Temple). The term Naṅjuṅdeśvara
means ‘the poison-drinking Śiva,’ and Nanjangud in Kannada signifies ‘the
place where Naṅja (Naṅjuṅdeśvara) resides.’ This site is
closely associated with Śiva, and several forms of the deity are found in
the temple. Among them, the Viśāpaharaṇa image is one of the
most attractive and rare. It is the only image that has been created completely
in accordance with the iconographic texts. The entire description of this
sculpture corresponds to that in the Karaṇāgama and Śrītattvanidhi.
This sculpture, a remarkable example of Indian art, also expresses the emotion
of love between Śiva and Pārvatī. The depiction of
Pārvatī pressing Śiva’s neck after his act of poison consumption
is unique and unprecedented. In none of the other images is Pārvatī
present; this sculpture, therefore, symbolises harmony and unity.
The term ‘Viśāpaharaṇa mūrti’ was
first coined by T. A. Gopinatha Rao. Later, N. K. Bhattasali used the term
‘Nīlakaṇṭha’ for this form. Subsequently, C. Sivaramamurti and
Stella Kramrisch also referred to this form as Viśāpaharaṇa.
The story of the churning of the ocean (Sagara Manthana, Kshirasagara Manthana,
or Amrita Manthana) is well known in epics and Purāṇica literature,
but its description is found less frequently in iconographic texts.
In Indian art, Viśāpaharaṇa images have
been found in both seated and standing postures. Almost all the sculptures
display a sense of gravity and calmness on Śiva’s face. Each image
reflects the distinctive traits of its regional art while being based on
iconographic texts. However, it is surprising that despite the immense
popularity of this form of Śiva among the people, it did not gain much
prominence in Indian art. This may be because the Viśāpaharaṇa
form is absent in the early phases of Indian sculpture. The earliest known
image dates to the 8th-9th century CE, indicating that,
unlike other forms of Śiva, it was rarely represented. Another reason
might be the lack of detailed descriptions of its construction in many
iconographic texts, which led to its limited representation in Indian art.
REFERENCES