BRIDGES OF FAITH: THE CULTURAL NEXUS
BETWEEN INDIA AND MYANMAR SPREAD THROUGH BUDDHISM
DR. PRASHANT DHAGE
Assistant Professor, Symbiosis Law
School, Nagpur,
Symbiosis International (Deemed
University), Pune, India
prashantdhage149@gmail.com
, +91 9168844198
ABSTRACT
Through the lens of Buddhism, this
abstract investigates India's significant and persistent cultural bond with
Myanmar. Buddhism, which originated in India and flourished throughout Asia,
had a particularly deep impact on Myanmar. This article looks at the
historical, cultural, and religious exchanges that have influenced these two
countries' relationships. The study begins with the ancient linkages that date
back to the transmission of Buddhism from India to Myanmar via missionaries and
traders and looks into the impact of Indian Buddhist philosophy on Myanmar's
religious and cultural landscapes. It examines important historical characters
including King Ashoka, whose missionary efforts helped spread Buddhism beyond
India's borders, including Myanmar. It also underlines Indian Buddhism's
architectural and creative impacts on Myanmar, which can be seen in the
country's countless temples, stupas, and statues. These cultural contacts not
only improved Myanmar's religious practices, but also cultivated a strong
spiritual bond with India. Furthermore, the abstract investigates the current
importance of this cultural connection, taking into account how both countries
continue to commemorate and protect their shared Buddhist legacy. It covers
contemporary cultural exchange and religious tourism activities aimed at
strengthening India-Myanmar ties. It emphasizes the long-lasting importance of
Buddhist cultural linkages between India and Myanmar, emphasizing their role in
forming both countries' identities and fostering mutual understanding. It paves
the way for future research into the precise historical events, cultural
objects, and contemporary trends that continue to characterize this unique
relationship.
KEYWORDS: Theravada, Mahayana Bodhisattvas,
Golden Land, Southeast Asia, Greater
Vehicle, Saṃsara,
Pali
INTRODUCTION
Southeast Asian nations started to
feel the full impact of Indian civilization in the first century CE. Trade
routes extended from India to Java, the modern-day middle and southern regions
of Vietnam, as well as to central and southern Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and
Sumatra. Numerous urbanized coastal communities emerged in that area, and
several small political structures replicated one another as Hindu civic
organizations began to proliferate in the area. As a result, over a millennium,
the influence of Indian Hindu-Buddhists was significant and helped several
states in the region experience some degree of cultural fusion. Due to their
direct link to sacred books and Indian literatures like the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata epics, Sanskrit and Pali languages, Indian scripts, and Theravada
and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism were also widely disseminated.
Southeast Asia saw the expansion of several wealthy and powerful colonial
empires between the fifth and thirteenth centuries, which proved to be
incredibly active in the creation of Hindu-Buddhist art and architecture. In
terms of sheer scale, design, and artistic achievement, some of these artworks
and architectural creations even rival or unexpectedly surpass those created in
India. The most notable examples are the Angkor Wat structures in Cambodia, the
Bagan temples in Central Myanmar, and Borobudur in Java. The Shrivijaya Empire
to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north fought it out for control of the
area.
AREA OF STUDY
It encompasses several key areas of
study within the broader context of Buddhist history, Spread of Buddhism, Architectural
Heritage, Literary and Linguistic Influence, Cultural Practices and Rituals,
Modern Interpretations and Contemporary Relations, Impact on Society and
Identity, Challenges and Preservation Efforts, Comparative Perspectives and cultural exchange. Exploring these areas of study
enables you to present a full retrospective analysis of the Buddhist cultural
relationship between India and Myanmar, giving light on its historical
significance as well as its modern relevance.
METHODOLOGY
This study used historical,
observational, and analytical approaches. A range of photographs from books,
papers, essays, and monographs were examined to detect any noticeable
deterioration or modifications and to interpret pertinent information.
theoretical frameworks, approaches, and gaps in the existing literature that
your study intends to address.
DISCUSSION
The
topic of Buddhist cultural linkage between India and Myanmar is rich with
historical, cultural, and religious significance, spanning over two millennia
of interaction and exchange. This discussion revolves around how Buddhism,
originating in ancient India, spread to Myanmar and influenced its culture
profoundly, creating enduring ties that continue to shape both countries to
this day. The Buddhist cultural linkage between India and Myanmar represents a
dynamic exchange of ideas, beliefs, and artistic expressions that have
profoundly shaped the religious and cultural landscapes of both countries. It
underscores the enduring legacy of Buddhism as a unifying force across diverse
cultures and civilizations, highlighting the importance of cultural continuity
and mutual respect in the modern world. As both nations continue to evolve,
their shared Buddhist heritage remains a cornerstone of their historical
identity and a testament to the power of cultural exchange to foster
understanding and cooperation.
The
spread of ancient Indian Vedic/Hindu and Buddhist thought and culture
throughout Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaya, Myanmar, and Siam is illustrative
of the cultural tie between India and Southeast Asia. It appears that Southeast
Asia is home to a variety of Indian scripts. India has had a long history with
Myanmar, particularly in terms of cultural contacts that included Buddhism and
the Burmese alphabet, which was based on the ancient Indian script. For millennia, Theravada Buddhism, in
particular, has had a significant impact on Burmese society and culture, with
90% of the population still practicing the religion (Haspelmath, 2005).
ANCIENT BUDDHIST HISTORY
From
its birthplace in India, Buddhism has expanded rapidly both as a religious
tradition and an accompanying philosophy, influencing cultures as diverse as
those found in Vietnam, Cambodia, China, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and the west. It
follows that there isn't much that can be said about what Buddhist thought is
all about in general. Indeed, a wide variety of perspectives on topics like the
nature of perception or the existence and makeup of a persistent substratum
underneath the transitory consciousness that is our everyday existence can be
found within the philosophical tradition.
But
Buddhism can be generally split into two rival schools that are nonetheless
strongly related to one another. "The Way of the Elders," the
"Greater Vehicle," and the Theravada and Mahayana schools are these
(Buswell, 2004). The Buddha is cited
by both schools in all of their varied forms as the source of their claims,
whether they are based on what is known about him from the dialogues and
related interpretive texts known as the aka or, more controversially, on what
he must have meant or believed but refrained from saying in order to keep his
listeners from becoming confused. Nonetheless, there is a strong element of
rationalism in Buddhism, in that the concepts presented in its philosophical
treatises are meant to stand on their own—quite apart from the Buddha's
authority—to reason, to be consistent with what is actually observable of the outside
world and (through introspection, supported by meditation techniques) of the
nature of human consciousness.
In
northern India in 563 BCE, Siddhartha Gautama gave birth to the Buddha, also
known as "the Enlightened One"(Basham, 1967). It is appropriate to compare his thoughts
with those of the conventional Hinduism of his era, which had come up with its
own theories about spiritual redemption and human nature. The Buddha rejected
nearly every fundamental aspect of Hinduism, even though he continued to adhere
to the doctrine of Saṃsara, or the cycle of life, death, and rebirth
(Bischoff 1995). In fact, all
dependence on revelation or conventional wisdom must be abandoned, and both
external and inward observation must take their place.
The
"three marks of reality" according to the Buddha are impermanence, no
consciousness, and suffering, in contrast to Hinduism's view of reality as a
permanent being, consciousness, and happiness. A key component of the Buddha's
explanation of personhood is the second "mark," or the absence of any
permanent seat of our transient thoughts, feelings, volitions, and so forth in
what we can perceive of ourselves. We are nothing more than a stream of
constantly shifting ideas, emotions, physical components, and so on; we are not
eternal souls that journey through a series of incarnations to an ultimate
Moksha.
Significant psychological
implications, as well as moral and societal ones, are believed to follow from
this examination of the essence of human being. The first thing that will
happen is that we will generally change the way we see ourselves after
realizing that we are temporary beings. We will stop being conceited and start
acting kindly toward others. The goal will be to reach Nibbana and put an end
to suffering, which is the third "mark" of reality (Buswell, 2004).
THE ARRIVAL OF BUDDHISM IN MYANMAR
Myanmar,
often known as Burma, is the largest and westernmost country in mainland
Southeast Asia. The majority of Burmese people, regardless of ethnicity,
practice Theravada Buddhism as their traditional faith. This religion has such
a strong influence on Myanmar's people that it is frequently argued that being
Burmese is synonymous with being Buddhist. Indeed, historically, it was
Theravada Buddhism more than any other force that drew the many peoples of
Myanmar together into a single civilization, so much so that even non-Buddhist
citizens of the country acknowledge the centrality of Theravada ethical,
social, and political conceptions to the fabric of Myanmar life.
The
Buddha, according to Burmese chroniclers, personally converted the people of
Lower and Upper Myanmar, which is how Theravada Buddhism came to be practiced
there. The Mon and the ancient Pyu people, who were the ancestors of the
present-day Bamar and the ethnic groups most strongly linked to the development
of Burmese Buddhism, originated in these areas. Additionally, according to
Burmese sources, the Pyu-Bamar homeland is identified as Aparanta, and the Mon
homeland is identified as Suvaṇṇabhumi
(Brian, 1997). These
identifications enable them to claim two missions from King Asoka (c. 300–232
BCE) for their nation. A reflection of a long-standing rivalry between the two
cultures, the same sources stress that while the simultaneous single Asoka
mission to Sri Lanka merely established Theravada Buddhism on the island for
the first time, the two missions restored an established Theravada tradition in
Myanmar. The monk refers to the renowned Pali commentator Buddhaghosa as a
local son as a last attempt to establish his supremacy.
Despite
the fact that Theravada Buddhism has a lengthy history in Myanmar, not much is
known about it prior to the fourth century CE. Furthermore, the information
that has been discovered contradicts the conventional wisdom that characterizes
early Burmese Buddhism as exclusively Theravada. Instead, it displays a diverse
range of customs that included native animist cults, Brahmanism, and various
types of Buddhism. For example, Buddhist inscriptions in Pali and Sanskrit, as
well as statues of Visnu and Mahayana Bodhisattvas, were discovered during
excavations in the ancient Pyu capital of Shrikshetra. Chinese travelogues from
the 7th century mention that the Pyu followed the tradition of ordaining all
adolescents as novices in the Buddhist religion and that the city supported
monks such as Sthaviravada (Theravada), Mahasaṇghika, Mulasarvastivada,
and Sammat.
Though
significant ties were also kept with Sri Lanka, South India was the main source
of cultural influences that Myanmar acquired during this early period. Bengal emerged as a key source of Indian
influence in the region starting in the ninth century, by which time the Bamar
had started to displace the Pyu in Upper Myanmar. During this time, a great deal
of locally produced and imported Buddhist votive tablets with Mahayana
iconography and Sanskrit inscriptions in north Indian script were produced. The
Muslim conquest of north India resulted in a decline in Bengali influence by
the twelfth century, which facilitated the growth of Burmese connections with
Sri Lanka. The relationship with Sri Lanka made it easier to introduce new
reformist branches of Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism, which eventually became the
dominant tradition in mainland Southeast Asia. This process took place
gradually, and it took until the seventeenth century for it to be finished in
Myanmar.
Three
broad categories, or routes, can be distinguished within Burmese Buddhism as a
method of salvation. The first and most common of these is the path of merit
making, in which one tries to gain merit (Pali, punna) by following the
Precepts (Pali, Sila), carrying out meritorious deeds, and performing acts of
Dāna (Giving), which are specifically directed toward religious figures
and objects like monks and pagodas. The purpose is to accumulate merit for a
blissful rebirth as a human or god, with Nirvaṇa (Pali, Nibbana) or
complete emancipation as a distant goal in the practitioner's mind. The
majority of Burmese Buddhists, both lay and ordained, chose happy rebirth as
their primary objective, a practice that has been common among Buddhists in
Myanmar since the Pagan period.
The
second system is the insight meditation route known as Vipassana (Sanskrit:
Vipasyana). When Vipassana meditation is skillfully done, one can reach
Nirvaṇa and Bodhi (Awakening), or enlightenment, either in this life or
in a future life not too far off. When on retreat, Vipassana practitioners in
Myanmar usually attend meditation centers and meditate in seclusion. It is
believed that living a moral lifestyle and abiding by the commandments are
essential prerequisites for insight practice (Kawanami, 2021). Early in the eighteenth century, Vipassana
meditation was resurrected in Myanmar, and by the late twentieth century, it
had become generally accepted across all socioeconomic strata in the nation.
Vijja
dhara, often known as the path of the Buddhist magician, is the name of the
third salvation method. This is a formidable occult sciences esoteric system
that requires master initiation. The path's objective is to become a Vijja
dhara, a sort of semi-immortal magician or miracle worker. In order to serve
the faithful until the arrival of Maitreya (Pali, Metteyya), the Vijja dhara
makes a pledge to stay in this world until then. Either that, or he will reach
nirvaṇa and make a vow to become a perfect Buddha himself. He serves as a
teacher to human disciples, teaching them in the arts of alchemy, reciting
spells, casting runes, and Samatha (Sanskrit: samatha, or serenity meditation)
(Kawanami, 2021). In general,
Vipassana meditation is avoided by Vijja dhara practitioners because they
believe it may prematurely bring them to Nirvaṇa. The Vijja dhara bears
remarkable resemblances to the medieval Bengali tantric Buddhist Maha Siddha
tradition in terms of tactics and objectives (Goh, 2014). In certain cases, religious authorities view the
Vijja dhara with mistrust since it puts forth a different soteriology than that
found in Pali literature.
Nowadays, approximately 89% of
people are followers of Buddhism, primarily from the Theravada School. As a
result, Buddhist institutions, practices, and philosophy have a significantly
greater influence on people's attitudes and ways of thinking than they do
elsewhere. Other religions such as Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity have also
held significance. Their total number of followers is significant, accounting
for 11% of the population. Among them, Christians have done better than Hindus
and Muslims in maintaining their status and traditions; they are mostly found
in border regions such the states of Karen, Kachin, Shan, and Chin. Despite
being a minority faith, Hindus and Buddhists get along well since nearly all
Hindu temples have an image of Lord Buddha. Islamic adherents fared poorly
because of historical and political (Jagarlankara, 2017).
CULTURAL TIES BETWEEN MYANMAR AND
INDIA
It
is crucial to consider the big picture of their historical development in order
to understand the actual character, scope, and depth of the cultural ties that
exist between India and Myanmar. Then and only then will one truly understand
how deep and varied these connections have been for so long. The first and most
important thing to stress is that the relationship between India and Myanmar is
a part of a wider phenomenon, which is the outflow and spread of Indian
influences in the area east of India, which stretches from Burma to Bali and
beyond.
Following
his declaration that China and India possessed "the oldest continuous
cultural traditions in the world," Basham made the definitive claim in his
seminal work that "the majority of Southeast Asia's culture originated in
India." Although China and the
Islamic world had some effect on the area, "the primary impetus to civilization
came from India." This resulted
from a historical sequence that started well in advance of the Christian era.
As
Panikkar explained, in China and other countries where Chinese civilization was
dominating, Indian impact was mostly on religious beliefs rather than social or
cultural institutions, however in Southeast Asia, it was more fundamental and
resulted in the formation of a new civilization. He did, however, add that 'it
is the brilliance of the local people that contributes to it its specific
qualities and distinctiveness.'
Indians
in the past, who included traders, monks, priests, artisans, and temple
builders, traveled by land or sea to the east for a variety of reasons,
including trade, adventure, skill sharing, and religious spreading. They faced
risks and perils, yet they were successful in founding "colonies."
These individuals, however, were not colonialists in the Western sense; they
were distinct from the colonialists who came much later, the Portuguese, Dutch,
British, and French, who rode the might of better weaponry. The Indianized kings
of the area were native chieftains who had absorbed the lessons India had to
offer. The Indian "colonies" were peaceful. The only things that
those who left India had to give were their skills as craftsmen, their
knowledge of religion or spirituality, and a few thoughts. They also had a
strong desire to discover Suvaṇṇabhumi, or greener pastures, as
much of the East was then known to them. They discovered welcoming environments
and communities in the local civilizations, ready to accept and integrate newcomers
while assimilating "the good" they brought with them. Multiple layers
of the influence of Indian thought, art, architecture, culture, philosophy, and
religion become evident as we delve deeper to appreciate the contemporary
civilization of nations like those of Indo-China or CLMV (i.e., Cambodia, Laos,
Myanmar, and Vietnam), Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia (Lopez 2018). It is another question
entirely whether or not this connection is completely recognized today.
Given
this overall context, it seems only sense that India's impacts would have a
noticeable impact on the land next to it. People could trek into what was Upper
Burma and the Arakan region from the former Bengal (which was divided into two
parts, one in India and the other now forming Bangladesh), Assam, and the
border region. There was also a migration from Burma to India. In addition, individuals sailed to the
southeast and southwest coasts of Burma from the coasts of Bengal, Orissa, and
Andhra Pradesh in order to start interacting with the people of Lower Burma and
the coastal region through trade, culture, and religion.
Anthropologists
and historians that study the history of human settlement in Burma frequently
mention the influx of strangers from three different directions: China in the
north, Cambodia, Malaya, and Siam in the east, and India in the west and south.
Some argue that the resulting interplay or collision of civilizations on
Burmese land favored ancient Indians over others. The Indo-Chinese peninsula
became into a theater of conflict between the Chinese and Indian civilizations,
as stated by Hall. Even though there was considerable mingling, Indian culture
ultimately won over everywhere but Annam and Tongking. India is heavily
indebted to Burma (Walton,
2016).
Some
regions of the East were referred to in ancient India as
Suvaṇṇabhumi or Suvarṇadvipa, which means the "Land of
Gold" or the "Island of Gold," respectively (Basham, 1967). Although the precise boundaries of the
mythical region are impossible to pinpoint, this usage suggests that the area
was well-known in antiquity for its propensity to produce gold, precious
minerals, and other valuable items. Subsequently, historians kept referring to
Burma as the "Golden Land," but they offered at least two further justifications:
first, the region was replete with pagodas draped in gold, and second, it was
endowed with rice plants that turned golden brown as crops grew. Burma as it exists today is still distinct as
"the Golden Land."
The
age of the relationship between India and Burma is a topic of much discussion
among academics. When evaluating the past, most Indian scholars have a very
long-term perspective, although some choose to adopt a restrictive stance and
emphasize the necessity of using concrete, verified data. The former school
would likely contend that it is incorrect to think that exchanges started just
1,500 years ago given that Indian civilization is at least 5,000 years old
(Lopez 2018). They like analyzing mythologies, histories, customs, and tales found
in Hindu and Buddhist texts to come to the conclusion that there were
connections dating back to pre-Christian and even pre-Buddhist times. Majumdar, who epitomizes this camp, contended
Burma, being the nearest to India and readily accessible by land and water, has
long drawn Indian traders, merchants, missionaries, and more ardent military
spirits. There is no doubt that by the first century CE, and most likely much
earlier, substantial Hindu colonies existed both along the coast and in Burma's
interior. He added:
‘On the whole, we shall be justified, on these grounds alone, in dating the
beginning of Hindu colonization in Burma certainly before and probably long
before, the beginning of Christian era.’
Harvey
put out the opposing viewpoint. The records of events in the chronicles dating
back to 850 BCE are erroneous because writing was uncommon even as late as 500
CE. His assertion that history
"cannot be remembered unless it is written" refuted narratives
derived from oral traditions that were ostensibly handed down through the
generations. Thus, he concludes that "these accounts contain, at most, a
substratum of truth up until 1044 CE."
Harvey
and a few other historians think that, by the fifth century CE, trade, cultural
exchanges, and human migrations had already been largely entrenched. As per
Hall, there is a noticeable Indian influence seen in the earliest
archaeological remnants found at Sri Kshetra, Halingyi, and Mrohaung in Arakan,
as well as other locations in Burma.
The
cultural ties between India and Burma were deeply ingrained. Jesse stated,
"The Coromandel Coast Indians brought their script, which dates back to
the second century, to Burma. The Burmese learned it from the Talaings and
still use it today." Despite
covering a relatively small region, excavations in Burma produced sufficient
artifacts, including pictures, terracotta tablets, gold plates, and
architectural pieces that attested to Indian influence in the first several
centuries following the birth of Christ (Keck, 2015).
The
traditional belief that the connections started later, when Burma incorporated
Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism into its borders, was refuted by them. Before giving rise to what finally became the
distinctive Burmese culture, these streams of influences mixed for millennia
with indigenous values, beliefs, and practices (such as animism). Ultimately,
there is no doubt that Theravada Buddhism prevailed as the religion embraced by
the majority of people, although it was never able to eradicate the strong
influences of Indian Hinduism.
Even
though the reasons why Myanmar is significant to India are frequently discussed
in talks about the cultural ties between the two countries, one can start by
looking at the kind and extent of India's significance to Myanmar. People still
remember the interactions and trades that took place between the two countries
on a philosophical, spiritual, cultural, and commercial level.
Ethnicity
and religion can be thought of as having the biggest influence in this
situation. It is clear to those who live in Yangon and are so exposed to the
core of Bamar or Burman (i.e., the majority ethnic group) culture that the
Buddhist connection has proven to be the strongest and enduring link between
the two civilizations. The Shwedagon Pagoda is said to have strands of Lord
Buddha's hair that he gave to two Burmese businessmen buried inside of it. This
tradition has persisted over time.
Many people hold the views that
Buddhism began in India, that King Asoka erected pagodas there, and that Buddha
actually visited the region. The aspiration of a typical Buddhist in Myanmar is
to travel to Bodh Gaya, Bihar, the location where Siddhartha attained
enlightenment and, more than 2,500 years ago, became the Buddha, at least once
in their lifetime. History reveals that the eleventh-century importation of
Buddhist scriptures, monks, and Buddha relics from Sri Lanka later on aided in
the resurgence and dissemination of Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism emerged as the
most popular religion. Because of this, Sri Lanka is also considered a close
friend and partner of the Burmese, although India continues to hold the top
spot as a truly precious land.
CONCLUSION
As
mentioned previously, Myanmar has a highly sophisticated, remarkably varied,
and intricate society. History and religion have a profound impact on its
culture. Its rich and varied culture, which permeates its people's daily lives,
was explained by this. It further suggested that Indian socio-cultural
influences would continue to pour in and shape Myanmar society. The effect of
it has been clearly apparent. Thus, in terms of religion, culture, arts,
clothing, cuisine, and manner of life, Myanmar society mirrored these ancient
influences and linkages. That being said, it would be incorrect to say that
this country is just an extension of Indian life. Over the years, Myanmar has
demonstrated an incredible talent at taking in and combining outside influences
to create a distinct, autonomous style all its own.
In
conclusion, ethnic ties have persisted for millennia between the inhabitants of
western Myanmar, especially the Chins, Kukis, and Kachins, and the people of
four Indian states that border Myanmar: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur,
and Mizoram. These ties transcend religion and philosophy. These connections were
established long before India and Myanmar became independent nations. They were
strengthened by linguistic affinity or similarity, familial and tribal ties,
customary commercial exchanges, similar lifestyles, and rivalry and
collaboration between rulers. The relationship between India and Myanmar will
undoubtedly grow and persist in the future. To summarize, the Buddhist cultural
and religious tie between India and Myanmar remains strong today, generating
mutual respect, understanding, and cooperation. It acts as a link between their
histories, cultures, and peoples, contributing to regional harmony and
worldwide cultural variety.
In
the midst of fast urbanization and development, both nations confront
difficulties in maintaining historic Buddhist places and artifacts. To
guarantee these cultural treasures' long-term preservation, efforts must be
made. Myanmar's advantageous location between India and other Southeast Asian
nations gives its diplomatic and cultural ties a geopolitical component that
influences regional cooperation and stability.
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