KĀPĀLIKA, KĀMA-KALĀ AND KUTEITUṆḌI ŚIVĀLAYA: APPROPRIATION OF ESOTERIC EROTIC RITUALS IN EARLY MEDIEVAL TEMPLE ART OF ODISHA

 

DR. SANTOSH KUMAR MALLIK

 

Assistant Professor, School of History,

Gangadhar Meher University, Amruta Vihar, Sambalpur, Odisha.

E-mail- skmallik@gmuniversity.ac.in., Mob-9013470778

ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1607-8393

 

ABSTRACT

Tantra, with its extensive rituals and practices that involve complex and detailed rituals, holds a significant position in the religious life of India. The information was considered highly classified and was only shared by the instructor with the disciple who had undergone the appropriate initiation. While the Tantras are no longer strongly disliked, they remain relatively obscure and their significance is not widely understood. The primary objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the subject, focusing specifically on the temple art of early medieval period in Odisha. Alexis Sanderson made significant advancements in understanding the social, theological, and political context in which the existing texts and rites were created. He reconstructed the processes that contributed to the prominent status of Śaivism in the medieval Indic world. Historically, Tāntrik-Śaivism expanded beyond the periphery of society and became a prominent religious movement that interacted with the mainstream. Over time, it gained dominance in the religious and socio-political discussions of early medieval Odishan temple art and the Kāpālika sect of Śaivism. The growth mentioned is naturally evident in the rituals and modifications made to the structure of the initiatory society. By this time, the community included not only ascetic practitioners who were fully dedicated to Śaiva religious practice, but also Brahmanical householders who followed the Tāntrik tradition. The growing involvement with the mainstream resulted in the development of exoteric initiation rites, some of which granted spiritual advantages without necessitating the applicant to fully embrace a Śaiva ceremonial lifestyle in Tāntrik activities. This essay primarily focuses on this objective.

 

KEYWORD: Tāntrik-Śaivism, Kāpālika, Tantra, Śāktism, Āgamas, Śava-sādhanā, Erotic-Rituals.

 

INTRODUCTION

The followers of Tantra are categorized into many sects and sub-sects based on the specific deities they worship and the ceremonial practices they adhere to. The Saktisangamatantra (V. 92-3) mentions various religious groups including Vaisnavas, Gānapatyas, Śaivas, Svayambhūvas, Caṇḍras, Pāśupātas, Cīnas, Jainas, Kālamukhas, and Vaidikas. The Śaivas, Śāktas, and Vaisnavas are the three primary sects, while the Sauras and Gānapatyas are two minor sects, based on their respective followers. The Śaivas worship Śiva, the Śāktas worship Śakti or the Divine Mother, and the Vaisnavas worship Vişnu. The Sauras worship the Sun, and the Gānapatyas worship Ganapati or Ganesa. The aforementioned sects are further divided into several sub-sects.

The specific attributes and, at times, even the designations of these sub-sects remain uncertain. The followers of Śiva are categorized into less than four groups in the Bhamati according to Brahma-sūtra II. 2. 37. The groups mentioned include the Śaivas, the Pasupātas, the “Kāruņikasiddhāntins”, and the Kāpālikas. In his commentary on the same sūtra, Bhāskarācārya substitutes the term “Kāruņikasiddhāntins” for “Kāruņikasiddhāntins.” Śrīnivasa, a scholar of the Nimbarka School, introduces a new term in his works Vedāṇtakaūstubha and Vedottama in his Pañcarātraprāmāņya gives an entirely new name in its place. For instance, he mentions the Kālāmukha (Swamy, 1977, p.15)[1], who believe that the following factors contribute to their success in life: Engaging in the ritual of immersing oneself in the remains of incinerated bodies, consuming sustenance from craniums of deceased individuals, wielding a ceremonial rod, arranging vessels with wine, and venerating the deity who governs over these practices (Karmarkar, 1959, p.35; Bose, 1940, p.37).

The term Viragama encompasses four distinct schools of Saivas, namely Sämānya Śaiva, Pūrvaśaiva, Miśraśaiva, and Śuddhaśaiva (Rangacarya, 1909, p.5502). The Pūrāṇas mention other sects such as Vāma, Pāśupata, Soma, Laṇg̣ala, Bhairava, Kāpāla, and Nākūla (Dikshit, 1945, p.2; Gyan, 2017; Shastri, 1951; Madhavacharaya 2012, p.3; Mishra 1610, pp.22; Ramesan, 1972, p.112). The Śaivas were regarded as non-Vedic, and the Vāyū Samhitā, as quoted by Appāya in Brahmasūtra II. 2. 38 establish a two-fold classification of the Śaivas into Vedic and non-Vedic. Laṇg̣ala and Nākūla could relate to the Nākūlīśa Pāśupātas, a religious sect whose teachings are detailed in texts such as the Pāśupātasūtra, Gaņakārika, and the Sarvadarśanasamgraha (Bhandarkar 1947, 151; 1965, p.115; Fleet, 1907, pp.419-426; Diwanji, 1955, p.267).

The Kāpālas or Kāpālikas appear to have had a strong connection with the Somas, Saumas, or Somasiddhāntins (Chakravarti, 1932, pp.21-22; Taylor, 1893, pp.12-13; Karmarkar 1959, p.35). They possessed and were familiar with the knowledge of the six primary mūdrās and two secondary mūdrās, also known as minor mūdrās. The four adornments for the neck, ear, and head are known as kanthikā or ghanțikā, rūc̣aka, kuṇḍala, and śikhāmaņi. Additionally, ashes, the sacred thread, the skull, and the staff are also considered significant (Madhavacharaya, 2012; Taylor, 1893, pp.12-13; Bhatta, 1991, pp.34-39).  Someone whose body bears these signs will not be reincarnated in this world. A Kāpālika achieves liberation by meditating on the ‘Supreme Being’ present in the female genitalia. He is decorated with wreaths made of human bones, consumes his meals from a skull, drinks wine from the skull of a Brahmin, engages in worship of Mahābhairava through human sacrifice, and presents offerings of human flesh to the fire. Gunaratna categorizes various sub-sects, including Bharaţa, Bhakta, and Laingika. They do not discriminate based on caste. However, it appears that they did not hold a respected status in society. A collection of thirty-two stories called Bharatakadvātṛmśikā was written to mock the Bharatas and reveal their flaws, ignorance, and moral corruption.

Contextualize of Kāpālīka Cult:

The Kāpālīka sect spread all over India starting from the 6^th CE. On the basis of the available epigraphic and literary sources, it is known that, by the 8^th CE., the Kāpālīka ascetics were present on the whole of the Deccan. They must also have been found in Odisha by that date (Lorenzen, 1972, pp.52-53).

The Kāpālīkas were a sect of Tāntrik extremists evolved out of the Paśupāta fold. They did not distinguish so much from their mother sect as to their principle rather they differentiated from it as to their devout practices. They had a close similarity with those of Śāktism, especially in so far as the practices, of human sacrifice and ritual sexual intercourse are concerned. The Kāpālīkas, certainly, accepted on the bizarre and disruptive practices (outlandish and anti-social practices of the Paśupātas) of the Paśupātas to a height of deviation. It is supposed that they ritually ate worrying foods and frequented cremation grounds. They strewed their bodies with the ashes of corpses and recovered human bones to adorn themselves and human skulls which they used as bowls (Kāpālīkas) filling them with alcoholic drinks during their horrible orgiastic ceremonies (Gonda 198, pp.278-279; Rao, 1916, p.176).[2] The use of inebriating material and of sexual intercourse as ways to spiritual realization is also known to have been part of the Kāpālīka ritual.

The Kāpālīka practices, in which ritual sexual intercourse as well as animal and human sacrifices played a great role, approximated to those of Śāktism. It differs to a fair extent from those followed by the Paśupātas, who gave a greater importance to the virtues of non-injuries and sexual abstinence (Gonda, 1981, pp.227-279; Brighenti, 2001, p.119). While ‘superior’ Tāntrikism was trying to grow its own doctrines on the Vedic tradition, the Kāpālīkas carried on some ‘inferior’ pre-Aryan traditions. It was based on the veneration of the most horrified and repulsive forms of Śiva and of the great goddess through the most unorthodox, licentious awful and disgusting rites forever conceivable by the Indian mind (Lorenzen, 1972, pp.52-53). The hostility of Brahmanism to those extreme Tāntrik (Brighenti, 2001, p.118)[3] adepts, of which Indian literature furnishes lots of examples, was most likely provoked by the alarm caused in the orthodox Hindu spheres by the plodding infiltration of such tribal elements into the fold of Śaivism-Śāktism (Bhattacharya, 1974, p.117). Despite their official censure by the Brāhmanical convention, a number of inscriptions (Das, 1981, p.24); found throughout the Indian subcontinent, show that the Kāpālīkas were held in high regard by many crowned heads and by sections of high-caste people living in the early medieval period, who almost certainly regarded them as trustworthy (Das, 1981, p.24). Tāntrik initiates admirable respect and deliberation. At the same time, the Kāpālīkas must have been regarded as commanding and dreaded priests-magicians by the low caste Hindus, who may even have considered them the continuators of their own ancestral tribal traditions (Das, 1981, p.24).

 Through the Bhauma-Karas epoch the Kāpālīkas gained a huge superiority in Odisha, impressing the distinctive mark of their rites and faith on the Śaiva and Śākta temples of that period. The prologue of erotic sculptures in the Hindu temple art of Odisha dates back to same period. It appears the growing authority exerted in the area by the, Kāpālīkas along with the Kaulas (Panigrahi, 1961, pp.234-235). Both these sects being distinguished by devoutness imbued with eroticism.

Moreover triumph of religiousness of the Kāpālīkas and Kaula in the Bhauma period and the nature of Tāntrikism appeared in the religious sphere of early medieval Odisha. The Kaula religious principles and practices, which were originated in central India, progressively extended over Odisha through the territory of Dakṣhiṇa Kośala. Further instance like 10^th Century Odishan temple features are mostly influenced by the central Indian art and architectural style. It was mostly affected by the patronage of the ruling Somavam̊śī dynasty from that same region. The ornamental programme of the Odishan temples built in this period was powerfully prejudiced by the spiritual erotic conceptions that were unusual to both the Kaula and Kāpālīka sects.

 

KĀPĀLĪKAS AND ASSOCIATED MONUMENTS WITH PRACTICES OF TĀNTRIKISM

In the context of Odishan Kāpālīkas mostly practices of Tāntrik rites are observed in the space of Śākta monument or that place associated with the Śākta cult. These practices are not restricted within the high-caste people living in early medieval period of Indian subcontinent particularly in Odisha. But also these practices associated with low-caste Hindus popularly known as priests-magician (Guṇiā/Sādhaka/Devī-Pūjaka/Dehurī/Disārī). They have accepted them as the continuators of their own inherited tribal tradition.

In Odisha, in particular, the presence of the Kāpālīkas might have encouraged the amalgamation of Tāntrikism with the black magic and fertility magic rites. It was diffused among the Kondhas, the supreme experts in human sacrifice and with the sorcery practices associated with the shamanistic religion of the Savaras or Saoras (Savara/ī-mantras, addressed only to the deified ghosts of those who have met with a violent death, have long been famous among the Hindus of Odisha) (Elwin, 1955, pp.231-232, 235). The tribal cultures of Odisha formed, indeed, a quite fit background for the activity of the Kāpālīkas.

As earlier stated, during the Bhauma-Kara epoch, the Kāpālīkas gained a great ascendancy in Odisha, impressing the unmistakable sign of their rites and faith on the Śaiva and Śākta temples of that period. The iconographic representation of the Kāpālīkas of terrible looking divinities endowed with kapālas, khaṭvāṅgas, skull-garlands, severed human heads, recumbent human bodies being gnawed by jackals, figures uplifting sacrificial knives, etc (Panigrahi, 1961, pp. 234-235). These Kāpālīkas are mostly found at the Śaiva and Śākta shrines, particularly frequent in Odisha in the period ranging from the 8^th to the 10^th CE. It can be ascribed to the conjoint influence of Śākta-Tāntrikism and of the Kāpālīka sect. The very introduction of erotic sculptures in the Hindu temple art of Odisha in Bhauma-Kara period, associated with the Kāpālīkas along with the Kaulas, both these sects being famous by a spirituality diffused with eroticism (Panigrahi, 1961, p.235).

For instance, the Vaitāla Deula of Bhubaneswar is no doubt the highest expression of Tāntrik art impregnated with Kāpālīka religiousness to be found in Odisha. The presiding deity of the shrine, Chāmuṇḍā, is depicted in the most hideous and gruesome way every conceivable. She has sunken eyes, gaping mouth, and the hood of a snake over her head, a skull-medallion in her coiffure and a corpse under her feet with a jackal gnawing its toes. Her body is emaciated, and among her attributes and ornaments are a long garland of skulls, kapāla, khaṭvāṅga and knife (Donaldson 1987:1294). The goddess is accompanied in the intensely dark and awe-inspiring sanctum of the temple by the already mentioned images of mātṛkās and Tāntrik Buddhist deities. Above it, two most terrific images of Bhairava, both ithyphallic, form the male counterparts of Chāmuṇḍā herself (Donaldson 1987:1294). The first of such images depicts the god in skeleton-form as surrounded by symbols connected with the practice of human sacrifice (two human heads placed on a tripod, a large butcher’s knife, and a kapāla supposed to be filled with the blood of a human victim whose severed head lies beside the god), while the second represents an emaciated Śiva engaged in killing the elephant-demon (Gajāsura-sam̊hāra-mūrti) (Panigrahi 1961:80-81). The presence of the lower portion of a stone Yūpa facing the temple doorway may be taken as a further proof of the ancient function of the Vaitāla Deula as a seat of human sacrifices (Panigrahi, 1961, p.234).

Some medieval Odishan texts use the variant form of Kāpālinī (the One-of-the-Kāpālinīs, i.e., the Kāpālīkas) instead of the classic form. Kāpālinī (a name of the Devī which also finds mention in the Devī-Mahātmya)  (Bhattacharya, 1974, p.96) indicate Chāmuṇḍā of the Vaitāla Deula. This possibly suggests that the Kāpālīkas of Bhubaneswar regarded Chāmuṇḍā as their tutelary deity and that they considered her even more important than her divine consort, Bhairava (Panigrahi, 1961, p.233). Another name by which Chāmuṇḍā was known as, Vetāli (Das, 2016, p.125), which probably to be connected with the religious practices carried out in her shrine, whose name- Vaitāla Deula means “the temple of spirits” (Panigrahi, 1961, p.61). The name Vetāli is found for the first time in the Harivam̊śa as an epithet of the great Goddess (Bhattacharya, 1974, p.57). It may be useful here to remind that the term vetāla is also used in some Tāntrik texts to indicate a kind of black magic (Danielou, 1964, p.310). To obtain their siddhis, the Kāpālīkas used to evoke the vetālas. They are described in the Āgamas as an obscure class of beings of extremely emaciated appearance, composed by the bones, tendons and skins only, with the knobs of the bones jutting out, the veins visible under the surface of the skins, the belly parched up, the hair stiff and spread out (Rao, 1916, p.562). In a word, the description of vetālas reminds under every aspect of the iconography of goddess Chāmuṇḍā/Vetāli, who can be considered to be their mistress. The faculty, attributed by tradition to the vetālas, of reviving dead human bodies by taking temporarily possession of them, constituted the pivotal element of the Kāpālīka rite known as Śava-sādhanā (Rao, 1916, p.562). Since it was Chāmuṇḍā herself who was thought to materialize herself in a (female?) corpse, being seated upon which the Kāpālīka initiate had to celebrate the rite in question through the medium of the prāṇa (vital principle) of a Vetāli.  It is not unlikely that the Śava-sādhanā rite was once regularly performed at the Vaitāla Deula, being this shrine consecrated to goddess Chāmuṇḍā/Vetāli.[4] This temple perhaps borrowed its name from the vetāla concept associated with the macabre ritual practice of Śava-sādhanā (Das, 2016, p.127).

The other Chāmuṇḍā images dating from the Bhauma period which are found at Bhubaneswar, namely, the ones enshrined in Mohinī temple, Uttareśvara temple and the small Kāli temple situated in Temple Road (Panigrahi, 1961, pp.154, 233) (Mallik, 2010, pp.152-154).  These are ichnographically very similar to the Chāmuṇḍā image of the Vaitāla Deula. All these images were probably adored with Tāntrik rites by the Kāpālīkas who settled in Bhubaneswar since the 8^th CE. 

The concept about Mohinī (Mallik, 2010, pp.152-154) (the Enchantress, a female incarnation of Viṣṇu), so far as the shrine dedicated to this deity at Bhubaneswar is concerned, has nothing to do with Vaiṣṇavism. This Mohinī, represented by an image of Chāmuṇḍā, appears to be connected with Mahāmāya (Transcendent-Illusion) of the Devī-Māhatmya, who is an aspect of the great Goddess of the Śāktas. Mahāmāya is also the virtual presiding deity of the Sixty-four Yoginī temple of Hirapur, a monument to the Kaula-Kāpālīka religiousness. Moreover, a legend runs in the Arka-Kṣhetra of the Prachi Valley (Ray, 1975, p.32), that Pārvatī once frequented the place in the form of Mohinī- actually disguising her real yoginī nature and attracted there many men to devour them until she was tamed by the advent of her consort Śiva in benign form there. This Mohinī may be identified with the eight-armed image of Chāmuṇḍā installed on the west side of Sobhaneśvara temple at Niali, assigned (the image) to the 8^th CE (Ray, 1975, p.11). This Chāmuṇḍā image was, in all likelihood, worshipped by the Kāpālīkas through human sacrifices, of which the story about Mohinī devouring the people may represent the legendary memories. With this at the background, it may be tentatively concluded that the divine figure of Mohinī/Mahāmāya was associated by the Kāpālīkas of Odisha to the Chāmuṇḍā-Yoginī cultic complex, with this securing her a place of regard in the Śākta pantheon of the Bhauma period.

As earlier stated the existence of Tāntrik shrines similar to those of the Vaitāla-Śiśreśvara group in the city of Jajpur- the capital of the Bhauma kingdom- is more than a probability. Such shrines, at which the mixed of Śaiva-Śākta-Buddhistic form of religion characteristic of the early Bhauma-Kara period, must have initially prevailed. It may have housed the terrific, but yet fascinating images of Chāmuṇḍā being presently placed in the compounds of the temples of Trilocanesvara and of Varahanatha, built in the Gaṅga and Suryavam̊śī periods respectively (Donaldson, 1985, p.187). These cult icons, dating back to the 8^th-9^th CE (Donaldson, 1985, p.187), were very likely associated with the Kāpālīka form of worship like the early Chāmuṇḍā images that still survive at Bhubaneswar.

Similarly, the Chāmuṇḍā image acting as the presiding deity of Kīchakeśvarī temple at Khiching was, in all likelihood, originally associated with the Kāpālīka cult practices. This awe-inspiring cult icon, depicting the goddess in her Kāpālinī form, bears the characteristics of the Bhauma art. It was perhaps, originally worshipped in a subsidiary shrine located in the premises of the great Śiva temple of Khiching (10^th CE), now no more in existence, along with two Bhairava images now housed in the Khiching museum (Joshi , 2010, pp.34-35; Das, 2016, p.125; Panigrahi 1985, p.333). The erotic scenes illustrate Tāntrik rituals and female figures carrying severed heads and kapālas.  There is another one sculptural panel possibly representing a scene of human sacrifice, which are depicted on the walls of Kīchakeśvarī temple (but which actually belonged to the collapsed Śiva temple or to some of its subsidiary shrines) or on those of Kutāituṇḍī temple (9^th CE) (Donaldson, 1985, pp.233-234, 242). Altogether, it suggests a strong Kāpālīka influence on religious beliefs and practices in the ancient capital city of the Bhañja rulers of Mayurbhanj.

Finally, some sculptural panels illustrating sexual rites are also noticed on the walls of the Sim̊hanātha temple which is located in Gopinathpur Island in Mahanadi. T. E. Donaldson, who assigns this temple to the late 9^th CE, associates the imagery in question with the Kāpālīka sect (Donaldson 1985, pp.233-234). Another prevalent opinion among the scholars in Kaliṅganā art and architecture, the assigned date of Sim̊hanātha temple mentioned from the last phase of the Śailodbhava period (ca. 7^th-8^th CE) (Panigrahi, 1985, p.377) (Fabri, 1974, p.132). This would imply the attribution of these erotic sculptures to the influence of the Kāpālīkas, that the sect was present on the Odishan soil even before the advent of the Bhauma monarchs. Such a hypothesis regarding the dating has never been advanced by any scholar[5] so far. Thus this present work may tentatively conclude about the dating of the temple belongs to the 8^th-10^th CE. Therefore, the period roughly coinciding with the reign of the Bhauma-Karas and the prevalent of Kāpālīka sect extended to at least four important centres in Odisha. These regions are Bhubaneswar (including Hirapur with its Yoginī-pīṭha), the Prachi Valley, Jajpur and Khiching. The extreme Śākta-Tāntrik rites constituted in those days a distinctive feature of the worship pattern followed by the Kāpālīkas of Odisha. The triumph of the Kāpālīka religiousness in the Bhauma epoch is historically connected with the parallel ascent of the Kaula religiousness, of which it is now time to give an outline.

 

KUTEITUṆḌI (NĪLAKAṆṬHEŚVARA) TEMPLE, KHICHING

The northernmost part of Odisha, where the Kaliṅgan style of temples exists, is Khiching. It is situated in the Panchpidha subdivision of Mayurbhanj district. The antiquity of Khiching or Khi̇jjiṅgakoṭṭa as it was known is evident from the hoards of Kuśhāṇa coins found in its neighbourhood and the many important relics datable to as early as the 7^th or 8^th CE which have been unearthed at the site. Besides the ruins of two fortified palaces and numerous Hindu temples, there are remains of a Buddhist monastery and remnants of several Buddhist well as innumerable Jain relics to suggest that Khiching was indeed a prosperous site where Brāhminism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished side by side (Panigrahi, 1985, p.392).

Khi̇jjiṅgakoṭṭa was the capital of Khi̇jjiṅga maṇḍala, an area comprising most of the modern districts of Keonjhar and Mayurbhanja in Odisha and some portions of Singhbhum district in Jharkhand was ruled over by another branch of the Bhañjas. It appears that the dynasty was founded by Kottabhanja sometime in the 9^th CE (Senapati & Sahu, 1967, p.65). The Bhañjas were although Śaivite by faith but patronized both Buddhism and Tāntrikism. The presiding deity of the Bhanja was Kīchekeśvarī, a form of Chāmuṇḍa.

One of the earliest standing temples at Khiching is Nīlakaṇṭheśvara, popularly known as Kuteituṇḍi (Fig.01). The temple consists of a vimāna only. On stylistic ground the temple can be dated tentatively to the closing years of the 9^th or the first half of the 10^th CE. The restoration is also defective like that of the Kīchakeśvari. The temple rests on a low platform. The bāḍa is tri-ratha in plan. The pābhāga is of four mouldings. The niches on the anu-ratha pāga are designed as khākharā-muṇḍis. The central niche on the rāhā-pāga is flanked by narrow pilasters. The rekhā design of the ratha extends to the gaṇḍi. The gaṇḍi is pañcha-ratha in plan. A recessed kaṇṭhi separates the gaṇḍi from the bāḍa. The recess is carved with sculptures mostly erotic. The kaṇikā-pāga is divided into five bhūmis and each bhūmi into three bāraṇḍis. The gaṇḍi is absolutely devoid of carvings. It is definite that the original temple had either vajra-mastaka or bho motifs on the rāhā. The mastaka has usual elements.

Unfortunately all of the major niches on the temple are empty so that there are no surviving cult images in-situ though there may be some housed in the local museum. The overall decorative program of the temple, as on numerous other temples constructed at this time, is permeated with the erotic themes. That is along with the iconographic program of the doorframe that includes female figures holding a sword and Kapāla, suggests the Tāntrik nature of the temple (Fig.02-03). The popularity of these particular extreme sects is the cult among the indigenous people of Odisha. Some of the more explicit themes make their first appearance on the slightly earlier Sim̊hanātha temple where they are generally confined to the capitals of the thin pilasters of stam̊bhas on the exterior walls of the jagamohana. On the Kuteituṇḍi, though the imagery is still small in size, erotic themes appear in more prominent positions and in greater numbers. Here another attention is regarding Bhikṣhātana-Mūrti. Inquiringly, as at Sim̊hanātha, Mukhalingam and on the earlier Vaitāla Deula, the erotic imagery appears to be associated with the Bhikṣhātana-Mūrti of Śiva. On that basis, the temples appear to be associated with the Kāpālīkas sects; it is possible that this aspect of Śiva, synthesized with the Kaṅkālamūrti, played a central role in their ideology, his conduct, particularly his ability to arouse sexual longing in women as well as his disdain for the orthodox Brāhmanical Vedas and Śāstra, serving as an ideal model. On the Kuteituṇḍi temple the Bhikṣhātana-Mūrti motifs appears in a small niche on the lintel of the rāhā niche on the east or back of the temple. Śiva stands with his weight resting on his right leg and his left leg slightly bent as if about to take a step. He holds the Khaṭvaṅga over his right shoulder and the Kapāla in his uplifted left hand. Diminutive female offering alms is on his left and the angry ṛṣhi is on the right (Fig.04). 

Though the temple is small in size, its architectural elements are well proportioned and clearly demarcated to create a feeling of disciplined elegance often lacking on larger temples. The overall decorative programme of the temple is permeated with erotic themes. Besides the erotic imageries, female figures are also depicted in a variegated posture in this temple. The erotic themes appear in more prominent positions and in greater number. The most interesting erotic imagery appears in the baraṇḍa recess on the northern wall (Fig.05-09). This consists of a frieze like arrangement of various sexual activities and initiations which possibly illustrate specific Tāntrik rituals such as Aṣṭa-Kāma-Kalā-Prayoga as described in an Odia manuscript called the Kaula-chūdāmaṇi, examples of which have been identified by J.N. Banerjea on the near contemporary Varāhī temple at Chaurarashi (Banerjea, 1965, pp.352-353). Each scene of the temple is separated from one another by a stam̊bha. Most important scenes of the erotic programme of this temple are the scenes of mukha-rati or oral sex, in some cases the male partners are identifiable as an ascetic. There are many scenes where more than two participants are depicted and in at least one scene, one of the figures is drinking from a Kapāla. In an example, a female is depicted as straddling a liṅga seated in a yoni-pīṭha (Fig. 09), which is indicated in the frame number four from left side. There are also several scenes with a figure holding the head of a kneeling figure, in one case with his other arm uplifted in a threatening gesture, possibly illustrating human sacrifice or Keśha-Dāna or the sacrifice of hair particular in Tāntrik rituals. 

Besides the baraṇḍa portion, numerous erotic scenes also appear at the base of the jambs framing the pāga niches, most of them are probably some kind of Tāntrik rituals. One scene, illustrate a displayed female being approached by a male. The figures in the background including one with arms upraised as if in despair, is near duplicate of scenes appear at Chaurashi (Fig.10). There are also motifs of mukha-rati or oral sex which appear in these niches with a third figure generally present to suggest the ritualistic nature of the activity, again duplicating the scenes at Chaurashi (Fig.11). A peculiar scene of maithuna order depicts a male wrapping one leg around his female group and gripping her yoni with his right hand and through his left hand embracing her from behind. Whereas the left arm of the female is hanging, though her right hand appears to hold something over his head. Her knees together suggest that she is still resisting (Fig. 12). There is also a heraldic displayed female enshrined in a chaitya of the vajra-muṇḍi crowning a side pāga on the south façade (Fig. 13). The female has her hands placed on her thighs for support and is flanked on her right by a dancing figure with arms uplifted and the flanking figure on the left is missing. This is a much larger and more heraldic example of the motif appeared on the early temples at Bhubaneswar. The lower part of the image is damaged.  

Other examples of two nāyikās  in the niche jamb, on the western side of (back) the pārśva-devatā niches  associated with diminutive figure and fat-belly Tāntrika, seem to be associated with ritualistic practices involving three individuals, which a virgin or unmarried girl (as referred in Tāntrik  text as Kumārī-Sādhanā). The female figure is standing in a tri-bhaṅga pose under a creeper. Her right arm rests on the shoulder of an attendant or Tāntrik while a small figure tucks on her garment. The figure is badly worn for the proper identification (Fig. 14). The other one is standing in a tri-bhaṅga pose under a creeper. Her left arm rests on the shoulder of an attendant or Tāntrik while small figure squats in the opposite corner, possibly tugging on the loose ends of her garment as in the previous one (Fig. 15).  

The erotic rituals on the baraṇḍa recess are depicted on either side of the central rāhā projection. There are seven scenes; each of them is separated from the other by a stam̊bha (pilaster). From the east, the first scene depicts a nude male and a female facing each other, appears very generic and continued from the formative phase of the temples at Bhubaneswar as well as all over Odisha. The second one depicts possibly a fellatio with a standing male holding the head of the kneeling female with his left hand while raising his right hand over his head, is near duplicating the scenes appears at Ratngiri Buddhist Monastery-I, façade  no.3 and shrine no.6 (hair cutting/offering rituals) at Jajpur. The third panel depicts a male holding with his both hands the head of a kneeling female. Whereas the fourth one illustrates a pot bellied ascetic holding a club over his shoulder and facing a female raising a Kapāla in her right hand. The fifth frieze contains a fellatio scene where the male placing his right hand on the head of the kneeling female, sixth scene depicts a nude female in a seductive pose accompanied by a small, sexually excited male. Lastly the seventh scene illustrates a standing male lifting his right hand to his face (Fig. 8). The entire horizontally carved panel is in the left side of the pārśva-devatā niches or the left side of Chaitya-arch motif. 

Another erotic panel of the rāhā also contains seven scenes in the right side of chaitya-archdesign (Fig. 9). The first one depicts a standing ascetic holding a club over his shoulder, attended by a small assistant. The second one show a reclining female, a stand figure with disheveled hair stands in the background uplifting his both hands, with the left one holding a Kapāla. While the fifth scene is not identifiable, the sixth scene depicts fellatio with a second male in the background fondling his liṅga. Lastly, the seventh one illustrates a male and a female in a relaxed pose; the male is touching her chin. There is also a strange image depicting an ascetic in sexual relation with two female (Fig. 9). Next, there will be a discussion on Kīchakeśvarī temple, Khichhing.

 

Discussion and Observation:

It must be acknowledged that these interpretations by the Kaūla-Kāpālīkas are implausible and defensive. There is a tendency to use mild language, even though they align with certain aspects of internal worship and Tāntrik yoga practice in some instances. If repugnant rituals were mandated, they were only widespread within a small and specific group, characterized by their crudeness. Only the Kaūla-Kāpālīkas are allowed to participate in the rituals of the Kaūla-Kāpālīka sect, while other Sākta sects are strictly prohibited from doing so. The Kāpālīkas are a group of individuals who engage in enticing behaviors. However, non-Kaūla-Kāpālīkas literature criticizes the rituals and beliefs of these individuals, perhaps to protect the general population from being drawn into these practices. The Kaūla-Kāpālīkas are a sect of the Tantras. Contrary to any potential objections, several non-Kaūla-Kāpālīkas sects of the Tantras are actually found to be quite acceptable.

Stringent measures were implemented to prevent any potential deterioration that these rituals could cause. Religious consumption of alcohol, meat, and other items is permitted with appropriate caution. Their utilization just for the purpose of pleasure and enjoyment is vehemently denounced. According to the Kūlārṇava, it is incorrect to assume that religion is only about indulging in these activities, as this would mean that even those who are drunkards and meat-eaters would be considered extremely pious individuals. The distinction between the sacred and common use of these things may appear subtle and ludicrous to some observers. The divergence was not only recognized but also strictly emphasized. It was also recognized that this excessively detailed distinction would be extremely difficult for ordinary individuals to understand. It is only natural for people to make mistakes and fail to follow the rules for using these distinctions, which would disrupt their mental balance. Consequently, these mistakes would occur frequently and cause more harm than good. The challenges and dangers associated with this type of worship were frequently exaggerated in order to intimidate anybody who might be attracted to it.

The Kaūla-Kāpālīkas worship involves the use of the five M’s, namely matsya (fish), māmsa (meat), madya (wine), mūdra (specific type of food), and maithūna (sexual intercourse). This form of worship is considered highly effective and even the best, but it has been clearly stated that it is more challenging than any other difficult task. The Kaūla-Kāpālīkas way, as described in the Kūlārṇava, is considered to be extremely challenging, even more so than walking on swords, grabbing a tiger by the neck, and clutching a snake, a form of worship performed by hand, was not permitted to be conducted in public. The rituals associated with this worship were kept secret to prevent the general public from being tempted to imitate them. Severe penances were prescribed for individuals who engaged in these practices solely for personal gain. The act of consuming heated wine was intended to provide pleasure and cleanse the drinker’s tongue. Nevertheless, individuals who employed these objects for reasons unrelated to religion were fated to encounter repercussions and everlasting condemnation.

This unique form of worship was designated exclusively for individuals who had reached a highly advanced level of spiritual growth, characterized by the attainment of an exceptional degree of self-discipline and the ability to remain undisturbed by external distractions. The qualities of an authentic Kaūla-Kāpālīka, who is capable of undertaking these acts, as described in much Tāntrik literature, are evident and command respect and admiration for the Kaūla-Kāpālīkas. This was nearly the ultimate and most challenging examination that a spiritual seeker had to undergo. Those who had the courage to pursue this highly challenging route were aptly referred to as Vīra either or heroes.

They anticipated the objects that were known to bring about degeneration in the normal flow of things to provide them with redemption. The path followed by the Kaūla-Kāpālīkas was described as highly enigmatic, surpassing the understanding of even experienced yogis. The true Kaūla-Kāpālīkas are those who remain unaffected by disturbances, including those of divine nature. These rituals were intended to be carried out with the guidance and oversight of appropriately qualified individuals. For an inexperienced individual who lacks knowledge of the intricacies of worship, attempting to do it and achieve success would be as absurd as someone who desires to traverse the ocean with a mere toy boat regarding hands.

Therefore, it is impossible to assume, as certain renowned academics have done, that the Tantras advocated promiscuity through these rituals, presenting themselves as a disguise for the Kāmaśāstra. Indeed, their objective, as evident from the aforementioned statements, was to achieve absolute self-discipline, which was displayed not only by refraining from indulgence but also by actively engaging in pleasurable activities.

Regardless of the guidance provided by Tantra texts and Tantric teachers, it is regrettable but undeniable that the actual practices of many individuals were vulgar and irreligious. These practices rightfully caused widespread contempt not only towards those individuals, but also towards the entire Tantra religious system. Adhering strictly to the instructions of the sāstras was extremely challenging, and some degree of misapplication was bound to occur. It is possible that individuals with immoral intentions may have manipulated or even created Tantric scriptures. Instances of such occurrences can be found even in the past, as evidenced by certain Tāntrik texts themselves. According to the Kūlārṇava, there were individuals who lacked formal education and would falsely teach concepts associated with Kaūla-Kāpālīkas, even in contemporary times, is plagued by individuals who deceitfully present themselves as academics of Tāntras and propagate unauthorized perspectives that contradict the established beliefs of the tradition.

The presence of these heterodox elements is the apparent reason for the distinction between two types of Tantras: Vedic and un-Vedic, or authoritative and un-authoritative. Due to the prevalent practice of mutual mudslinging among several sects, the literature of one sect was subjected to brutal criticism and ungracious condemnation by another. Therefore, first, it seems quite challenging to identify the truly authorized and excellent works of the system. However, this cannot confuse or deceive the careful and diligent scholar.

No one can credibly criticize the entire system because of the widespread occurrence of unauthorized rituals or the dissemination of numerous non-authoritative materials. An in-depth analysis of the prominent and exemplary works of the system is anticipated to aid in discerning the merits from the truly detrimental aspects and dispelling any misunderstandings about the system. This will facilitate a more accurate understanding and appreciation of its teachings by providing insight into their true essence. It is encouraging to see that many scholars and institutes have enthusiastically undertaken the study and publication of Tāntrik texts; there is no text provided.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Notes: